Course in general linguistics

A brief survey of the history of linguistics. Data andaims of linguistics: connexions with related sciences. The abject of study. 1. On defining a language 2. Linguistic structure: its place among thé facts of language 3. Languages and their place in human affairs. Semiology Linguistics of language structure and linguistics of speech. Internai and external éléments of a language. Representation ofa language by writing. 1. Why it is necessary to study this topic 2. The prestige of writing: reasons for its ascendancy over thé spoken word 3. Systems of writing 4. Causes of inconsistency between spelling and pronunciation . 5. Consequences of this inconsistency Physiological phonetics. 1. Définition ofthe subject 2. Transcription 3. Writing as evidence APPENDIX PRINCIPLES OF PHYSIOLOGICAL PHONETICS Sound types. 1. On defining speech sounds 2. The vocal apparatus and how it works 3. Classification of sounds by oral articulation Sounds in spoken sequences. 1. Necessity of studying sounds in spoken sequences 2. Adduction and abduction 3. Combinations of adduction and abduction in the spoken sequence 4. Syllabic boundaries and vocalic peaks 5. Criticism of theories of syllabification 6. Duration of adduction and abduction 7. Sounds of aperture 4. Diphthongs. Questions of spelling. Editorial note GENERAL PRINCIPLES Nature ofthe linguistic sign. 1. Sign, signification, signal 2. First principle: thé sign is arbitrary 3. Second principle: linear character of thé signal CHAPTER H. Invariability and variability ofthe sign. 1. Invariability 2. Variability Static linguistics and evolutionary linguistics. 1. Internai duality of ail sciences concerned with values 2. Internai duality and thé history of linguistics 3. Examples of internai duality 4. Différence between thé two orders illustrated by comparisons 5. Synchronie and diachronic linguistics. Their methods and principles contrasted 6. Synchronie laws and diachronic laws 7. Is there a panchronic point of view? 8. Conséquences of the confusion of synchrony with diachrony 9. Conclusions SYNCHRONIC LINGUISTICS General observations. Concrète entities of a language. 1. Entities and units. Définitions 2. Methods of délimitation 3. Practical difficultes of délimitation 4. Conclusion Identifies, realities, values. Linguistic value. 1 The language as thought organised in sound 2 Linguistic value: conceptual aspects 3 Linguistic value: material aspects 4. The sign as a whole Syntagmatic relations and associative relations. 1. Definitions 2. Syntagmatic relations 3. Associative relations The language mechanism. 1. Syntagmatic interdependences 2. Simultaneous functioning of both types of group 3. Absolute arbitrariness and relative arbitrariness Grammar and its subdivisions. 1. Définitions. Traditional-divisions 2. Rational divisions 3. Abstract entities in grammar. DIACHRONIC LINGUISTICS General observations. Sound changes. 1. Their absolute regularity 2. Conditioning of sound changes 3. Methodological considérations 4. Causes of sound change 5. The scope of sound change is unpredictable Grammatical conséquences ofphonetic evolutior, 1. Breaking grammatical links 2. Oblitération of word-composition 3. There are no phonetic doublets 4. Alternation 5. Laws of alternation 6. Alternation and grammatical link Analogy. 1. Définition and examples 2. Analogies are not changes 3. Analogy as thé créative principle in languages Analogy and évolution. 1. How an analogical innovation enters thé language 2. Analogical innovations as symptoms of changes in interprétation 3. Analogy as a principle of rénovation and conservation Popular etymology. Agglutination. 1. Définition 2. Agglutination and analogy Diachronic units, identifies and realities. APPENDICES A. Subjective and objective analysis B. Subjective analysis and détermination ofunits smaller than thé word C. Etymology GEOGRAPHICAL LINGUISTICS On thé diversity oflanguages. Geographical diversity: its complexity. 1. Coexistence ofseveral languages in thé same place 2. Literary language and local dialect Causes of geographical diversity. 1. Time, thé essential cause 2. Linguistic areas affected by time 3. Dialects hâve no natural boundaries 4. Languages hâve no natural boundaries Propagation oflinguistic waves. 1. Force of intercourse and parochialism 2. A single principle underlying both forces 3. Linguistic differentiation in separate areas QUESTIONS OF RETROSPECTIVE LINGUISTICS CONCLUSION The two perspectives of diachronic linguistics. Earliest languages and prototypes. Reconstructions. 1. Their nature and purpose 2. Degree of certainty of reconstructions Linguistic evidence in anthropology and prehistory. 1. Languages and races 2. Ethnicity 3. Linguistic paleontology 4. Linguistic types and group mentality Language familles and linguistic types.